Westerse muziek

Het tonale tijdperk en daarna: 1600 tot heden

Het begin van de 17e eeuw was een van de meest dramatische keerpunten in de muziekgeschiedenis, meer nog dan het begin van de Ars Nova en bijna net zo revolutionair als het begin van de 20e eeuw. De winden van verandering waren enkele decennia eerder gevoeld, en de totstandkoming van de nieuwe stijl vereiste enkele decennia na de eeuwwisseling, maar het jaar 1600 zag de uitvoering van verschillende werken die bestemd waren om de loop van muziek te veranderen.

Het barokke tijdperk

Oorspronkelijk gebruikt in een denigrerende betekenis van iets bizars, gedegenereerd en abnormaal, kreeg de term barok geleidelijk een positieve connotatie voor de grootse, dramatische, energetische geest in de kunst die heerste in de periode van ongeveer 1600 tot ongeveer 1750. De nieuwe geest vereiste een enorm uitgebreid muzikaal vocabulaire en een snelle evolutie van nieuwe technieken vond plaats, vooral in vocale muziek. Er werden twee verschillende muziekstijlen herkend. Een daarvan, de prima prattica (of stile antico), was de universele stijl van de 16e eeuw, het hoogtepunt van twee eeuwen vasthouden aan Vlaamse modellen. De andere, seconda prattica of stile moderno genoemd, verwees naar de nieuwe theatrale stijl die uit Italië kwam.

De uitgebreide woordenschat zorgde voor een duidelijker onderscheid tussen heilige en seculiere muziek en tussen vocale en instrumentele uitdrukkingen, en nationale verschillen werden groter. De tonale organisatie van muziek evolueerde ook, aangezien de middeleeuwse modi die voorheen als basis voor melodie en harmonie hadden gediend, in de 17e eeuw geleidelijk werden vervangen door het systeem van tonaliteit dat de westerse muziek domineerde tot ongeveer 1900: een systeem gebaseerd op contrasterende toetsen of sets van onderling gerelateerde noten en akkoorden die zijn afgeleid van een grote of kleine schaal. Als we de periode als geheel bekijken, onderscheiden twee extra innovaties deze het duidelijkst van de voorgaande Renaissance: concertato, of het contrast, de combinatie en afwisseling van stemmen en instrumenten, en basso continuo (grondige bas, figuurlijke bas),een begeleiding bestaande uit een instrument met een lage toonhoogte, zoals een cello of een fagot, gecombineerd met een toetsinstrument of luit dat in staat is tot harmonische uitwerking.

Opera

Most typical of the emerging style were the dramatic productions of the Camerata, a group in Florence who were dedicated to recreating and imitating the musical ideals and practices of classical antiquity—in a sense, the musical manifestation of the Renaissance. Their guiding philosophy was the preeminence of textual over musical considerations; their belief was that the function of music was to heighten the dramatic impact of words. The musical result was monody: originally recitative (solo singing reflecting speech rhythms), later also arioso (more lyric than recitative) and aria (more elaborate song), accompanied by a basso continuo that could provide an innocuous background to a solo voice. Among the major figures in this revolutionary movement were Giulio Caccini and Jacopo Peri, both of whom composed operas based on the legend of Orpheus and Eurydice. Caccini also provided the name for the new movement with his publication of Le nuove musiche, a collection of solo songs with continuo accompaniment. The ideas and techniques conceived by the Camerata spread rapidly over Italy and, subsequently, all over Europe.

Early Italian operatic schools

During the 1620s and 1630s the centre of operatic activity shifted from Florence to Rome, where several distinctive features developed: a chorus was used extensively, dancing was incorporated into the dramatic spectacle, and an overture in the style of a canzona became the accepted norm. A flourishing operatic activity developed a decade later in Venice, where the first public opera house was opened in 1637. Public taste began to influence operatic composition, and, as a result, several innovations, such as the extensive use of popular tunes, spectacular staging, and short, fanfare-like overtures, were introduced. The audience’s desire for tuneful songs also contributed to the clear distinction between recitative and aria, which began with the Venetian school. Foremost among contemporary composers was Monteverdi, who had known of the activities of the Florentine Camerata while serving as musical director to the Gonzaga family in nearby Mantua. He adopted the new style for his later madrigals and wrote two operas, Orfeo (1607) and L’Arianna (1608), before moving to Venice in 1613. Francesco Cavalli and Antonio Cesti became the leading Venetian operatic composers after Monteverdi’s death in 1643.

Neapolitan opera

The last major operatic centre to develop in Italy began its activities in the 1670s in Naples. Neapolitan opera seria, or serious opera, with characters from classical history or mythology, dominated Europe for a century. It was essentially a series of recitatives and arias, the latter mostly of the da capo type (ABA, the A section given improvised embellishment on its repetition) characterized by florid virtuosic singing. Other features were, first, the distinction between recitativo secco (dry recitative), accompanied by the continuo, and recitativo accompagnato, or stromentato, accompanied by the orchestra, and, second, the establishment of the Italian overture. Called a sinfonia, the overture in three parts (fast–slow–fast) evolved into the symphony during the 18th century. Alessandro Scarlatti was the most influential of the early Neapolitan operatic composers.

France

During the same period, opera was introduced at courtly functions outside Italy. After Luigi Rossi’s Orfeo was performed in Paris in 1647, the Italian form was gradually merged with the major French dramatic form, the ballet; the importance of dancing in French operas thereafter is not surprising. Another distinguishing feature was the French overture (a slow movement, a fast movement, and, occasionally, a return to the opening slow section), which, like the Italian overture, later had an independent life. The masters of French opera during the Baroque period were Jean-Baptiste Lully and his successor Jean-Philippe Rameau. Because of the social and political upheaval of the Thirty Years’ War, there was less operatic activity in Germany than in France, and the activity that did occur was more completely dominated by the Italian style. Hamburg, Munich, Dresden, and Vienna were the major centres, with Reinhard Keiser and Georg Philipp Telemann as the most prolific composers.

England

The situation in England resembled that in France, since the English also had a flourishing musicodramatic form, the masque, which gradually merged with Italian opera. Henry Purcell and John Blow were the chief composers of opera in English before Italian domination of serious opera became almost complete during the 18th century.